Indo-Pakistan Relations

Since independence, relations between Pakistan and India have been characterized by rivalry and suspicion. Although many issues divide the two countries, the most sensitive one since independence has been the status of Kashmir. Born out from the furnace of animosity, India and Pakistan, the twin brothers have a history of unique relations. There is much in common between Republic of India and Islamic Republic of Pakistan. The diplomatic relations developed soon after independence but these relations did not ensure good friendship. Roots of Conflict Here are some of the highs and lows in relations between the two counties 1947 – Britain divides its Indian empire into secular (but mainly Hindu) India and Muslim Pakistan on August 15 and 14 respectively. The partition causes one of the largest human migrations ever seen, and sparks riots and violence across the region. 1947/48 -,The blaming process started soon after the inception of Pakistan when during the world’s biggest mass migration both states were unable to provide security to minorities. At that time there were 680 princely states and their future was to be decided according to their own will. Junagadh and Kashmir are two of these states which are still a bone of contention between India and Pakistan. Junagadh was composed of 88% Hindu Majority with a Muslim ruler named Nawab Mahabat Khan. The ruler voted for Pakistan but India did not accept it on the plea of heavy Hindu majority. One the other hand, the ruler of Kashmir, Hair Singh, wanted to join India but the majority of Muslim population was in the favour of Pakistan. Maharaja Hair Singh made a â€Å"stand still agreement† with the Government of Pakistan. However, the rumors spread in Pakistan that Mahraja Hari Singh was going to accede with India. The forces of Pakistan invaded in Kashmir in 1947 and Hari Singh asked India for help. Indian Armed forces violating the provision of their constitution entered into the jurisdiction of Kashmir. 1954 – The accession of Jammu and Kashmir to India is ratified by the state's constituent assembly. 1957 – The Jammu and Kashmir constituent assembly approves a constitution. India, from the point of the 1954 ratification and 957 constitution, begins to refer to Jammu and Kashmir as an integral part of the Indian union. 1963 – Following the 1962 Sino-Indian war, the foreign ministers of India and Pakistan – Swaran Singh and Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto – hold talks under the auspices of the British and Americans regarding the Kashmir dispute. 1964 – Following the failure of the 1963 talks, Pakistan refers the Kashmir case to the UN Security Council. 1965 – Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 Full-scale hostilities erupted in September 1965 when Pakistan attacked India forcing India to attack Lahore in retaliation. India and Pakistan fight their second war. The conflict begins after a clash between border patrols in April in the Rann of Kutch (in the Indian state of Gujarat), but escalates on August 5, when between 26,000 and 33,000 Pakistani soldiers cross the ceasefire line dressed as Kashmiri locals, crossing into Indian-administered Kashmir. but as the war expands, Indian troops cross the international border at Lahore on September 6. The largest engagement of the war takes place in the Sialkot sector, where between 400 and 600 tanks square off in an inconclusive battle. By September 22, both sides agree to a UN mandated ceasefire, ending the war that had by that point reached a stalemate, with both sides holding some of the other's territory. In 1965 India launched operation Meghdoot and captured 80% of Siachen Glacier. 1966 – On January 10, 1966, Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahdaur Shastri and Pakistani President Ayub Khan sign an agreement at Tashkent (now in Uzbekistan), agreeing to withdraw to pre-August lines and that economic and diplomatic relations would be restored. 971 – Pakistan and India go to war a third time, this time over East Pakistan. Bangladesh was created out of East Pakistan. 1971 was a black year in the history of Pakistan as she lost its eastern wing as India intervened to favour Bengali people and seized the Qasim part. 90, 000 Pakistani soliders surrendered in Bangladesh. India and Pakistan go to war a third time, this time over East Pakistan. Hostilities lasted 13 days, making this one of the shortest wars in mo dern history. East Pakistan becomes the independent country of Bangladesh on December 6, 1971 1972 -. Pakistani Prime Minister Zulifiqar Ali Bhutto and Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi sign an agreement in the Indian town of Simla, in which both countries agree to â€Å"put an end to the conflict and confrontation that have hitherto marred their relations and work for the promotion of a friendly and harmonious relationship and the establishment of a durable peace in the subcontinent†. Both sides agree to settle any disputes â€Å"by peaceful means†. The Simla Agreement designates the ceasefire line of December 17, 1971, as being the new â€Å"Line-of-Control (LoC)† between the two countries, which neither side is to seek to alter unilaterally, and which â€Å"shall be respected by both sides without prejudice to the recognised position of either side†. Nuclear Arm Race 1974 – On May 18, India detonates a nuclear device at Pokhran, in an operation codenamed â€Å"Smiling Buddha†. India refers to the device as a â€Å"peaceful nuclear explosive†. 1985- In December 1985, President Zia and Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi pledged not to attack each other's nuclear facilities. 986, the Indian and Pakistani governments began high-level talks to resolve the Siachen Glacier border dispute and to improve trade. 1988 – The change in leadership brought a new era of relation between the two rivals. In Dec 1988 Benazir Bhutto Shaheed and Rajiv Gandhi resumed talks on different issues melding cultured exch ange, civil aviation and not to attack each other nuclear facilities. At that time BB said. â€Å"Burry the Hatchet; we have had enough of it. Let’s start a new chapter. India has a new generation leadership. Rajiv & I belong to a new generation. We have some kinship. He father was assassinated and so was my father. He lost his brother and so have I we both can start from clean state. † The two countries sign an agreement that neither side will attack the other's nuclear installations or facilities. Both sides agree to share information on the latitudes and longitudes of all nuclear installations. This agreementis later ratified, and the two countries share information on January 1 each year since then. 1989 – Armed resistance to Indian rule in the Kashmir valley begins. Muslim political parties, after accusing the state government of rigging the 1987 state legislative elections, form militant wings. Pakistan says that it gives its â€Å"moral and diplomatic† support to the movement, reiterating its call for the earlier UN-sponsored referendum. India says that Pakistan is supporting the insurgency by providing weapons and training to fighters, terming attacks against it in Kashmir â€Å"cross-border terrorism†. Pakistan denies this. Militant groups taking part in the fight in Kashmir continue to emerge through the 1990s, in part fuelled by a large influx of â€Å"mujahideen† who took part in the Afghan war against the Soviets in the 1980s. Indo-Pakistani Cold War Bilateral tensions increased in early 1990, when Kashmiri separatists from Pakistan occupied Kashmir backed by the Pakistan's ISI perpetrated violence in Indian Kashmir. Subsequent high-level bilateral meetings relieved the tensions between Pakistan and India, 1991 – A formal â€Å"no attack† agreement was signed in January 1991. The two countries sign agreements on providing advance notification of military exercises, maneuvers and troop movements, as well as on preventing airspace violations and establishing overflight rules. 992 – A joint declaration prohibiting the use of chemical weapons is signed in New Delhi. 1993- but relations worsened again after terrorist bombings in Bombay, in March 1993. Talks between the Foreign Secretaries of both countries in January 1994 resulted in deadlock. 1996 – Following a series of clashes, military officers from both countries meet at the LoC in order to ease tensions. 1997, high level talks were resumed after 3 years. Prime Minister of India and Pakistan met twice and foreign secretaries conducted 3 rounds of talks in which they identified 8 outstanding issues to focuss. These 8 issues were †¢ Kashmir issue †¢ Water crisis †¢ Sir creek issue †¢ Rann of kutch †¢ MFN status †¢ Siachen issue †¢ State sponsored issue †¢ Nuclear Deterrence 1998 – In September 1997 the talks broke down on structural issue where as in May 1998 the situation became harder because of nuclear experiment conducted by Pakistan. India detonates five nuclear devices at Pokhran. Pakistan responds by detonating six nuclear devices of its own in the Chaghai Hills. The tests result in international sanctions being placed on both countries. In the same year, both countries carry out tests of long-range missiles. Improvement in Relations In the late 1990s, the Indo-Pakistani relationship veered sharply between rapprochement and conflict. After taking office in February 1997, Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif moved to resume an official dialogue with India. A number of meetings at the foreign secretary and Prime Ministerial level took place, with positive atmospherics but little concrete progress 1999 in feb,Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee meets with Nawaz Sharif, his Pakistani counterpart, in Lahore. The two sign the Lahore Declaration, the first major agreement between the two countries since the 1972 Simla Accord. Both countries reaffirm their commitment to the Simla Accord, and agree to undertake a number of ‘Confidence Building Measures' (CBMs). Some of the diplomatic gains are eroded, however, after the Kargil conflict breaks out in May. Kargil is the first armed conflict between the two neighbours since they officially conducted nuclear weapons tests. 2001 – Tensions along the Line of Control remain high, with 38 people killed in an attack on the Kashmiri assembly in Srinagar. In July, Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf and Indian Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee meet for a two-day summit in the Indian city of Agra. That summit collapses after two days, with both sides unable to reach agreement on the core issue of Kashmir. On December 13, an armed attack on the Indian parliament in New Delhi leaves 14 people dead. India blames Lashkar-e-Taiba and Jaish-e-Muhammad for the attacks. 2002 – President Musharraf pledges that Pakistan will combat extremism on its own soil, but affirms that the country has a right to Kashmir. 2003 – After Musharraf calls for a ceasefire along he LoC during a UN General Assembly meeting in September, the two countries reach an agreement to cool tensions and cease hostilities across the defacto border. 2004 – Vajpayee and Musharraf hold direct talks at the 12th SAARC summit in Islamabad in January, and the two countries' foreign secretaries meet later in the year. This year marks the beginning of the Compo site Dialogue Process, in which bilateral meetings are held between officials at various levels of government (including foreign ministers, foreign secretaries, military officers, border security officials, anti-narcotics officials and nuclear experts). In November, on the eve of a visit to Jammu and Kashmir, the new Indian prime minister, Manmohan Singh, announces that India will be reducing its deployment of troops there. 2006 – India redeploys 5,000 troops from Jammu and Kashmir, citing an â€Å"improvement† in the situation there, but the two countries are unable to reach an agreement on withdrawing forces from the Siachen glacier. In September, President Musharraf and Prime Minister Singh agree to put into place an Indo-Pak institutional anti-terrorism mechanism. 007 – The Samjhota express carnage of 18th February 2007 added fuel to fire. the train service between India and Pakistan (the Samjhauta Express) is bombed near Panipat, north of New Delhi. Sixty-eight people are killed, and dozens injured. The fifth round of talks regarding the review of nuclear and ballistic missile-related CBMs is held as part of the Composite Dialogue Process. The second round of the Joint Anti-Terrorism Mechanism (JATM) is als o held. 2008 – India joins a framework agreement between Turkmenistan, Afghanistan and Pakistan on a $7. 6bn gas pipeline project. A series of Kashmir-specific CBMs are also agreed to (including the approval of a triple-entry permit facility). In July, India blames Pakistan's Inter Services Intelligence (ISI) directorate for a bomb attack on the Indian embassy in Kabul, which kills 58 and injures another 141. In September, Pakistani President Asif Ali Zardari and Indian Prime Minister Singh formally announce the opening of several trade routes between the two countries. In October, cross-LoC trade commences, though it is limited to 21 items and can take place on only two days a week. On November 26, 2008, a series of ten co-ordinated attacks were committed by terrorist which began across Mumbai which is the Indian financial capital and the largest city. The attack was started on 26 November 2008 and ended on 29 November 2008. In these attacks 173 people were killed including 35 foreigner where as 38 were wounded. India blamed Lashkar-e-Taiba .. Another reason was that Obama Discussed to solve Kashmir issue to bring stability in the South Asian region. This attack was done to divert his attention. In the wake of the attacks, India breaks off talks with Pakistan. 009 – The Pakistani government admits that the Mumbai attacks may have been partly planned on Pakistani soil, while vigorously denying allegations that the plotters were sanctioned or aided by Pakistan's intelligence agencies. In August, India gives Pakistan a new dossier of evidence regarding the Mumbai attacks, asking it to prosecute Hafiz Mohammad Saeed, the head of Jamaat-ud-Dawa, an Islamic cha rity with ties to Lashkar-e-Taiba. 2010 – In January, Pakistani and Indian forces exchange fire across the LoC in Kashmir, the latest in a string of such incidents that have led to rising tension in the area. In February, India and Pakistan's foreign secretaries meet in New Delhi for talks. This meeting is followed by the two countries' foreign ministers meeting in Islamabad in July. In May, Ajmal Kasab is found guilty of murder, conspiracy and of waging war against India in the Mumbai attacks case. He is sentenced to death. 2011 – In January, Indian Home Secretary GK Pillai says India will share information with Pakistan regarding the 2001 Samjhauta Express bombing. The two countries' foreign secretaries meet in Thimpu, Nepal, in February, and agree to resume peace talks â€Å"on all issues†.

Saponifacation of Ethyl Acetate and Soldium Hydroxide

Ethyl Acetate – NaOH Reaction Kinetics Experiment Martin Novick Group 14, Chemical Engineering Laboratory Submitted to Prof. David B. Henthorn September 25, 2012 Summary The goal of this project was to determine the pre-exponential factor, k o , the activation energy, E, and the reaction rate constants, k, of the saponification process of ethyl acetate using sodium hydroxide (NaOH) at 5 temperature between 15 and 25 degrees Celsius. Two trails were performed at temperatures 16, 18, 20, 22, and 24 degrees Celsius. The main equipment of the project were the jacketed beaker batch reactor and the LabPro conductivity probe.The solution’s conductivity throughout the reaction was collected and plotted in a linearized plot against time to retrieve value for each trial. The rate law was assumed to be = , where and are the concentrations of sodium hydroxide and ethyl acetate respectively. The ln? k) values were plotted against the inverse temperatures to ( linearize the Ar rhenius equation. The k o value and E value from the linearized Arrhenius plot were found to be 15  ± 3M ? 1 s ? 1 and ? 6402  ± 8191? j ? mol? 1 respectively. The E value being negative suggests the reaction is exothermic. The large standard errors of the and values were probably caused by the low number of data points collected or the assumed rate law was wrong. Introduction The objective of this project was to determine the pre-exponential factor, k o , the activation energy, E, and the reaction rate constants, k, of the saponification process of ethyl acetate using sodium hydroxide (NaOH). Saponification is a chemical process heavily used in industry, especially in soap production.Knowing the effects of temperature on the reaction rate allows better control over the reaction process and find the optimizing point of production. The right temperature maximizes production and minimizes reactants and heating or cooling energy, finding the maximum possible profit. 2 The saponif ication of ethyl acetate with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is an equi-molar reaction given as NaOH + CH3 COOCH2 CH3 > CH3 COONa + CH3 CH2 OH. [2] The rate was assumed to be second order overall, but first order relative to either reactant,[2] with the disappearance rate of sodium hydroxide given as:[4] dCOH = ? COH Cac , dt (1) where COH is the NaOH concentration, Cac is the concentration of ethyl acetate, and k is the rate constant. COH is represented with x, and Cac is assumed to be in excess with a starting concentration of a. The concentration of ethyl acetate throughout the reaction was given as Cac = a ? xo + x, where xo is the initial starting concentration of NaOH. Substituting the expressions for COH and Cac into Equation 1 results in: dx = ? kx(a ? xo + x). dt Equation 2 is then separated and integrated shown as the following: ? t dx = ? k ? dt. xo x(a ? xo + x) 0 x (2) (3)The result of equation 3 would become: ln ( xo (a ? xo + x) ) ax = kt. a ? xo (4) Since a 20% excess ethyl acetate solution was used, the initial ethyl acetate concentration was 1. 25 times of the initial starting concentration of NaOH, so a = 1. 25xo . After the substitution of a = 1. 25xo , Equation 4 was simplified to: 3 0. 2x ln ( x o + 0. 8) = kt. 0. 25xo The relationship between xo x (5) and conductivity of the solution was given as:[2] ? = , ? (6) where is the initial conductivity of NaOH before adding ethyl acetate, s the conductivity after the reaction has reached completion, and is the conductivity at any point of time during the reaction process. Substituting Equation 6 into Equation 5 gives the following: ? ln (0. 2 ? ? + 0. 8) ? = kt. 0. 25xo (7) Since , and are constants, the only variable in the left hand side of Equation 7 being . Each point can be substituted into the left hand side of Equation 7 and plotted against time to retrieve a linear plot with the slope being the k value. To find the value of the pre-exponential factor, and activation energy, , would require linearizing the Arrhenius equation given as: k = k o , where R is the gas constant and T is the temperature the given k is at in degrees Kelvin. Equation 8 is linearized by taking the natural log of both sides: ln(k) = ln(k o ) ? E . RT 1 (8) (9) to retrieve a linear plot with Equation 9 shows a linear relationship between ln(k) and 4 the y-intercept being ln( ) and the slope being . Hence: k o = ey? intercept . = ? (10) (11) Equipment, Materials, and Method The equipment used were a jacketed batch reactor beaker, cooling water circulation system, computer, LabPro temperature probe and conductivity probe, mixing stand and magnetic stir bar. The materials used for this reaction were a 0. 08M NaOH solution and a 0. 1M ethyl acetate solution. A 20% excess Ethyl acetate was used to ensure NaOH was the limiting reactant. [1] NaOH was chosen for the limiting reactant because of its high conductivity relative to Ethyl acetate. The extent of the reaction was monitored by measuring the conductivity throughout the reaction.With NaOH being the limiting reactant, the change in conductivity is more visible, and the termination of the reaction can be more easily observed. The each experimental trail was setup as shown in Figures A1 and A2 of Appendix A. The temperature and conductivity probes were completely submerged under the surface of the reacting solution. One data reading was retrieved per second. Before the reaction process begun, the cooling water circulation system was set at desired temperature and the reactants were cooled to the target temperature to keep an 5 isothermal reaction environment.In Equation 8, the k value was only a function of temperature; if temperature varied throughout the reaction, the k value would also vary throughout the reaction. The reaction was started once thermal equilibrium between the batch reactor beaker and cooling water was established. For about the first half a minute, only the conductivity of NaOH in the r eactor was collected, to ensure the initial conductivity in conductivity was more easily observed. The initial conductivity was the first conductivity point after the major drop of conductivity due to the addition of ethyl acetate.The reaction was started after about half a minute after the start of the data collection by adding the ethyl acetate. The solution was well mixed throughout the reaction to ensure a uniform temperature of the solution, to prevent any local k values being different from the overall k value. If there any temperature gradients throughout the system existed during the reaction process, there would be different local k values throughout the reactor. Data collection was terminated at least half a minute after the reaction had gone to completion, when no conductivity change was observed.The final reaction completion conductivity, , was the conductivity of the solution after the reaction has completed, and was used to find k value. Hysteresis effects were remove d by using a random number generator to determine the order of trials. 6 Results and Discussion 1. 2 1. 1 1 0. 9 ln(k) 0. 8 0. 7 0. 6 0. 5 0. 4 0. 3 0. 00335 0. 00337 0. 00339 0. 00341 1/T (T-1) y = -4378. 4x + 15. 713 R? = 0. 7383 0. 00343 1 0. 00345 0. 00347 Figure 1 the plot of the linearized Arrhenius equation where ln( ) . The linearized Arrhenius equation plot shown in Figure 1 has a R2 value of 0. 383 suggesting the data does not have a good linear fit. The lack of data points may have been the cause of the low R2 value. The ln(k) values of the same temperature mostly seem to have small variations, but overall has the predicted trend of decreasing in ln(k) value as ?1 increases. The plot has a negative overall trend with and hence retrieving a negative E value. The negative E value suggests the release of energy as the reaction proceeds. Table B1 in appendix B shows the retrieved values of k, ko and E. The positive ko value was expected according to Equation 8.Since k valu es are linearly proportional to ko, for k values to be positive, ko must also be positive. The resulting negative E value was an expected result, since the reaction was said to be very spontaneous. The standard errors of ko and E being about 20% to 25% of the original value, suggests the data as imprecise. The imprecision of the data can also be observed from the low R2 value. 7 Looking at the imprecision of the plot in Figure 1, there is a notable difference between the k values at the same temperature for = 0. 003364 (24oC) and 1 1 = 0. 03455(16oC). This may be due to the variance in concentration of solutions since solutions were remade each laboratory day. Another possible cause maybe that the contents of solutions may have reacted with the atmosphere introducing extra contents to the reaction. The k values all have standard errors less than 1%. Figures B1 to B5 of Appendix B shows the plots of ln( 1 ( +1)) 1. 25 0. 25xo used to find the k values at each temperature. The p lots all have a positive trend which is reasonable according to Equation 7.The resulting slope is the k value of that trial, and the k values cannot be negative. Also the R2 values of the plots were all above 0. 95, suggesting a good fit with the linear best fit line model. Despite the high R2 values, the a clear parabolic trend was observed in all the residual plots shown in Figures B6 to B14 of Appendix B, the linear property of the plots are questioned. Figure B15 of Appendix B shows an example plot of the full data from 16oC trail 1. A clear linear trend was observed from the beginning of the plot, but an obvious curve was observed from the end of the plot.This observation was probably due to the fact that as the reaction proceeded, the reaction started behaving like a first order reaction. The first order reaction behavior is because near the end of the reaction of the excess ethyl acetate concentration was much greater than the NaOH concentration and can be treated as a consta nt. With the concentration of ethyl acetate being constant the only resulting variable would be 8 the NaOH concentration. Conclusion and Recommendations The retrieved ko value and E value were 15  ± 0. 3 and ? 36402  ± 8191.Since the standard errors of ko and E values were about 20% and 25% of the original value respectively, and the R2 value was only 0. 7383 for the plot in Figure 1, the data is concluded to be imprecise and that more data points should be collected to improve the precision. The assumption of the rate being second order overall, but first order relative to either reactant was concluded to be inappropriate. Though the R2 value for all the trials were above 0. 95, because a clear parabolic trend was observed in all the residual plots, Figures B6 to B14 of Appendix B, it was concluded that all the trial data do not have a linear relationship.Since it has been concluded that the assumed rate equation, Equation 1, does not describe the reaction, a new rate equation is needed to describe the reaction. The low R2 value in Figure 1 can be improved by increasing the amount of data collected. More trails can be done at each temperature and more temperatures can be tested within the given interval. One large bulk solution can be made and used for all the trails, but stored and isolated from the atmosphere. The error caused by the variation in concentrations of the reactants at different trails can be solved by using the one large bulk of reactants.The problem of the reactants reacting with the atmosphere can be solved by isolating the reactants from the atmosphere during storage. 9 References [1] Crismyre, Bobby, Do, Bryan, and Kronmiller, Mandy. â€Å"Ethyl Acetate – NaOH Reaction Kinetics Experiment Standard Operating Procedures,† (2010) [2] Julio F. Mata-Segreda, Hydroxide as a General Base in the Saponification of Ethyl Acetate. Journal of the American Chemical Society, (2010), 124 (10), 2259-2262. [3] Keusch Fachdidaktik Chemie. à ¢â‚¬Å"Reaction Second Order,† Institute of Organic Chemistry, Universitat Regensburg. [4] Schmidt, Larry D. â€Å"The Engineering of Chemical Reactions,† 2 Ed.Press, New York (2005) Oxford University 10 APPENDIX A: Experimental Set Up Figure A 1: Shows the theoretical setup and flow of each experiment. Figure A 2: Shows the actual set up used for each experiment. 11 APPENDIX B: Experimental Results and Data Table B 1 shows the result of the desired information Set Temperature (oC) 16 (Trial 1) 16 (Trial 2) 18 (Trial 1) 20 (Trial 1) 20 (Trial 2) 22 (Trial 1) 22 (Trial 2) 24 (Trial 1) 24 (Trial 2) ( 1 ?1 ) ( ) Actual Temperature (oC) 16. 45  ± 0. 05 16. 44  ± 0. 04 18. 33  ± 0. 03 20. 30  ± 0. 05 20. 30  ± 0. 5 22. 24  ± 0. 04 22. 25  ± 0. 05 16. 45  ± 0. 05 16. 45  ± 0. 05 15  ± 3 ? 36402  ± 8191 k-values ( 1 min? 1 ) 1. 674 ±0. 001 2. 023 ±0. 001 1. 921 ±0. 002 2. 241 ±0. 002 2. 247 ±0. 003 2. 244 ±0. 006 2. 169 ±0. 002 2. 572 ±0. 003 3. 140 ±0. 002 12 25 20 y = 2. 0232x R? = 0. 9994 15 Y (L/mol) y = 1. 6744x R? = 0. 9972 10 5 0 0 2 ln( 1 ( +1)) 1. 25 4 6 Time (min) 8 ln( 10 1 ( +1)) 1. 25 12 Figuer B 1 Plot of 0. 25xo at 16 degrees Celsius, where = 0. 25xo . 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 -2 ln( 1 +1)) 1. 25 y = 1. 9206x R? = 0. 9974 Series1 Linear (Series1) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Figuer B 2 Plot of 0. 25xo at 18 degrees Celsius, where = ln( 1 ( +1)) 1. 25 0. 25xo . 13 25 y = 2. 247x R? = 0. 9964 y = 2. 2407x R? = 0. 9982 Y (L/mol) 15 Trial 1 Trial 2 10 Linear (Trial 1) Linear (Trial 2) 5 20 0 0 2 4 6 Time (min) 1 ( +1)) 1. 25 1 ( +1)) 1. 25 8 10 12 Figuer B 3 Plot of ln( 0. 25xo at 20 degrees Celsius, where = ln( 0. 25xo . 0 18 16 14 Y (L/mol) 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 2 4 Time (min) 1 ( +1)) 1. 25 1 ( +1)) 1. 25 y = 2. 244x R? = 0. 9909 y = 2. 1687x R? = 0. 9985 Trial 1 Trial 2 Linear (Trial 1) Linear (Trial 2) 6 8 10 Figuer B 4 Plot of ln( 0. 25xo at 22 degrees Celsius, where = ln( 0. 25xo . 14 25 20 y = 2. 5723x R? = 0. 9982 15 Y (L/mol) y = 3. 1405x R? = 0. 9992 Trial 1 Trial 2 Linear (Trial 1) Linear (Trial 2) 10 5 0 0 1 2 3 4 Time (min) 5 6 7 8 Figuer B 5 Plot of ln( 1 ( +1)) 1. 25 . 25xo at 24 degrees Celsius, where = ln( 1 ( +1)) 1. 25 0. 25xo . X Variable 1 Residual Plot 0. 8 0. 6 Residuals 0. 4 0. 2 0 -0. 2 -0. 4 0 2 4 6 X Variable 1 8 10 12 Figure B 6 The residual plot for 16 degrees Celsius Trial 1. 15 X Variable 1 Residual Plot 0. 6 0. 4 Residuals 0. 2 0 -0. 2 -0. 4 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 X Variable 1 Figure B 7 The residual plot for 16 degrees Celsius Trial 2. X Variable 1 Residual Plot 0. 8 0. 6 Residuals 0. 4 0. 2 0 -0. 2 -0. 4 0 1 2 3 4 X Variable 1 5 6 7 8 Figure B 8 The residual plot for 18 degrees Celsius Trial 1. X Variable 1 Residual Plot 0. 8 0. 6 Residuals 0. 4 0. 2 0 -0. 2 0 -0. 4 -0. 6 X Variable 1 2 4 6 8 10 12 Figure B 9 The residual plot for 20 degrees Celsius Trial 1. 16 X Variable 1 Residual Plot 1. 5 1 Residuals 0. 5 0 0 -0. 5 -1 X Vari able 1 2 4 6 8 10 12 Figure B 10 The residual plot for 20 degrees Celsius Trial 2. X Variable 1 Residual Plot 1. 5 1 Residuals 0. 5 0 -0. 5 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 X Variable 1 Figure B 11 The residual plot for 22 degrees Celsius Trial 1. X Variable 1 Residual Plot 0. 8 0. 6 Residuals 0. 4 0. 2 0 -0. 2 -0. 4 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 X Variable 1 Figure B 12 The residual plot for 22 degrees Celsius Trial 12 7 X Variable 1 Residual Plot 1 Residuals 0. 5 0 0 -0. 5 1 2 3 4 X Variable 1 5 6 7 8 Figure B 13 The residual plot for 24 degrees Celsius Trial 1. X Variable 1 Residual Plot 0. 6 0. 4 Residuals 0. 2 0 -0. 2 -0. 4 0 1 2 3 4 X Variable 1 5 6 7 8 Figure B 14 The residual plot for 24 degrees Celsius Trial 2. 140 120 100 Y (L/mol) 80 60 40 20 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 Time (min) Figure B 15 The plot of all the data from 16oC trail 2 18 APPENDIX C: Sample Calculations Volume of 1M NaOH solution needed to prepare 300mL 0. 08M NaOH solution: 0. 3 ? 0. 08 = 0. 024 = 24 Volume of ethyl acetate needed to prepare a 300mL 0. 1M ethyl acetate solution: 1000 88. 105 3 0. 001 0. 10 ? ? ? ? ? 0. 3 = 2. 96 0. 897 3 Finding E value: Calculating the k value for time being 1 minute in trial 2 of 16 degrees: = ? = ? 2904. 9 ? 8. 3145 = ? 24153 1 ? ln ( ( + 1)) 1. 25 ? 0. 25xo 1 16324. 71 ? 4698. 16 ln ( ( + 1)) 1. 25 8259. 03 ? 4698. 16 0. 25(0. 8) = kt = = 14. 89 19APPENDIX D: Error Analysis If the result (R) is calculated by the following equation: = ? where is the exponent of the independent variable, . The standard error would be calculated by the following equation: 2 2 = (? ( ) ) 1 (1) (2) where is taken from equation 5, is the standard error of each individual independent variable. Since the equation used is the following: ? ln (0. 8 ( ? ? + 1)) ? 0. 25 = , 3) where is the rate constant, is the initial conductivity, is the conductivity at the end of the reaction, is the conductivity at any time, and is the initial concentration of the NaOH s olution. The error of the right hand side of equation 3 with = 36. 662 is show as the follow: 36. 662 (( 0. 0339 ) ) = 15. 536. 0. 08 1 2 2 was given the value of 0. 08 with an uncertainty of  ±0. 0339. The reaction rate constant, k, were found by the best fit line of the plot, so the uncertainty of the k were found by taking the linear regression.The rate constant was the slope of the best fit line making the calculation of the error with a 95% confidence level as: = 1. 96 ? , v? 2 ? 2 Where , is the standard error of estimate, is the x values of the plot, n being the number of points, and = ? =1 , (4) . As for the y intercept, or the activation energy, the error with a 95% confidence level would be: 20 = 1. 96 ? , v 1 (? )2 + 2 , (? 2 ? 2 ) (5) Where , is the standard error of estimate, is the x values of the plot, n being the number of points, and = ? =1 . The standard error of estimate, , , seen in both equation 4 and equation 5 is given as: , =v ? ( ? )2 , ? 2 (6) where is the y value of the points, is the corresponding y value on the best fit line, and n is the number of data points.

Discuss imagery of Dulce est Doreum

Wilfred Owen's Dolce et Decorum Est uses effective imagery to uncover the hidden realities of the World War. The appalling cruelties soldiers were left to face were captivated to the reader through his dramatic use of expressive imagery. The compelling images drawn in this poem are so graphic, that it carries the ability for the reader to perfectly compose the authors intended scenery in their minds. Bent, double, like old beggars under sacks†(line 1) â€Å"knock kneed, coughing like hags†(line 2). This gives the reader a more realistic view on the appearances of the soldiers as they are normally portrayed to be strong bulky figures. The comparison of the men to â€Å"beggars† or â€Å"hags† show the effect the war has had on them, causing premature ageing and exhaustion within them from the war life for which they cannot even maintain a straight posture and is why they look so beggar like.The exhaustion is further conveyed in the lines â€Å"and towards o ur distance rest began to trudge† (line 4). The use of â€Å"trudge† expresses the slow and crucifying progress of the army. â€Å"Flound'ring like a man in 12). â€Å"He plunges at me guttering,choking,drowning† (line 16) indicates that men drowned helplessly in the toxic gasses, tragically in front of the eyes of fellow soldiers. Despite being so disturbingly graphic, it shows the reader the extent of pain soldiers are to bear.Orwell brilliantly showcases the fatality of the soldiers deaths in the lines â€Å"†It you could near, at every Jolt, odl Come gargling from the froth-corrupted lungs/ Obscene as cancer, bitter as the cud,†(line 21-23) Another powerful use of imagery Mle, incurable sores on innocent tongues†(line 24) suggests the pain and misery of the soldiers were unforgettable and scars left on them both externally and internally were permanent. These graphic images play a very effective role to draw the reader to the poem, and to generate a way to show the gruesome, heartless, and horrifying effects of war.

Existentialism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 4

Existentialism - Essay Example The author reiterates that the American culture and authenticity has been developed by religious origins. Religion is considered to be the most outstanding approach to the American authenticity culture, as many of the philosophers have observed. For instance, some American philosophers have initiated their activities in the American history, claiming that they have been heeded by a â€Å"higher calling.† In light of this statement, re-known religious Dr. Phil states that he works and initiates activities if he feels they are logical (Guignon, 6). If he does not feel the logic behind these activities, then there is no need to attend to such. In seconding the religious inductions in authenticity, the author states that Oprah is a re-known American, who is guided by religion in his endeavors. She states that she has the church within herself. This substantiates the bearing of authenticity as strong religion, which makes people successfully attend to their endeavors. In answering the question, what kind of life is the one most worth living, being authentic is one of the best given answers by the author. However, the other point ion answering such a question is Simply acting to fully fulfill a persons social and religious duties. In making this a better approach to living, ones religious experience needed to generate utter sincerity. This could only be achieved by a person having fully admitted his or her introspection.   With such situations in the developing world, it is considered that the developing world has indeed changed the original; view of authenticity (Guignon, 8). Therefore, to get a better view of defining a person’s authenticity and how he or she is living, Personal ambition and agendas are to be given a concrete definition. This is by banking on what a person is determined to gained, given the highest scale of attainment. Given all this freedom, it was considered a hard task to fully

Impact of the Virtual Private Network on Businesses Research Paper

Impact of the Virtual Private Network on Businesses - Research Paper Example VPNs are categorized according to the role they play in business, and there are three different categories of VPNs, one being remote access VPNs that allows remote users like mobile employees to securely access the business network. Furthermore, we have intranet VPNs enables a company to connect its remote sites to the corporate backbone, and lastly, extranet VPNs facilitates an organization’s suppliers, strategic associates and customers to be connected to the company network (Bidgoli, 2005). Introduction The growth of internet users globally has been phenomenal from a meager four computers in 1969 that formed the ARPANET to an estimated 2.4 billion users in 2012(internet world statistics). Businesses depend on the internet for real-time information; thus, the accessibility and easy availability of the internet has enabled an unprecedented growth, and the need for secure networks became essential. However, businesses that have dispersed locations are faced with the issue of l ong-distance private communication (Wallace, 1998); this is considering that communication with others privately across long distances previously was too expensive and difficult. Business exchange information securely within computers and devices on these networks provided that only persons with real access to the network could share that information. Thus, communication across long distances enabled large businesses to lease private phone lines from service provider AT&T, and this meant that only business information was transmitted on the line. Therefore, a business establishment in Los Angeles was able to lease an entire phone line from AT&T to connect to their office in Atlanta, Georgia. The business paid for the line without due regard to the volume of data exchanged on it. This leased line solution used by business for private communication turned out to be costly that several businesses could not use this method of connectivity. The growth of VPNs A Virtual Private Network co nceals the line between the open public internet and a closed private leased line network (Wouters and Bantoft, 2006). Kosiur (1998) calls them virtual to indicate that although circuit between two sites could be treated as a private line, it was not physically wired and served only as a linkage when traffic was passing over the circuit. The evolution VPNs started with the earlier usage of frame relay technology, whereby businesses would enjoy secure method of communication by utilizing a router at each endpoint. They became important because of the usage of less equipment to form a secure connection than leased lines (Dern, 1992). Moreover, they were comparatively cheap than leased lines, considering the overall expense and the inability to exhaust all the bandwidth of the leased line. Considering all the advantages it had, there were still costly issues that accompanied its usage; for example, maintenance, and this led to the development of an Internet-based VPN. This technology u sed open and the readily available Internet to form a secure connection amongst multiple users including those in remote locations and connections were established when needed and terminated after data transmission (Berger, 2012).  

How organisations gain committed employee co-operation. Andrew Essay

How organisations gain committed employee co-operation. Andrew - Essay Example The organization should also enact strict regulations to penalize straying employees (Bettencourt & Brown, 1997). Any organization desiring to have all its employees cooperate to ensure the success of its activities, and maximum productivity should cultivate a positive attitude to the employees. All employees must be treated with the ultimate fairness in terms of salary allocation and promotions based on merit but not some back door operations. This assists to create confidence and trust among the employees for the organization. It also ought to be very open in communicating any new policies or changes in the operation of its systems to ensure that all staff are updated on matters relating to the organization (Welins, 1991). Employees need to be involved maximally in all the activities of the organization. This aspect is critical since it makes them protect all the interests of the organization and work towards achieving the set goals as though they were their own. Each employee will own the ambition of the organization and this way they will cooperate to see that the organization succeeds in all its endeavors. The organization should also support the welfare groups of its employees through either funding some of their club activities or offering support services to the employees in their projects (Deci, Connell & Ryan, 1989). Successful organizations that work closely with their employees must have an organizational culture. This refers to the way the organization’s power structure is designed. The organization should have a well-organized chain of command such that the employees always get the true information concerning the running of the organization system. A well-structured organizational culture runs the system even without much intervention (Campion, Medsker & Higgs, 1993). An organization needs to convince its workers to cooperate in ensuring that it gains national certification in terms of maintaining human rights and the social welfare of

Decisions in Paradise, Part III Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Decisions in Paradise, Part III - Essay Example The creation of a strong brand is vital because it facilitates the market penetration. The coffee market in Kava Island is becoming congested with new entrants. For Starbucks, to be able to increase its market share, it must be able to develop a brand image and presence. Brand image improves brand loyalty and thus improve the penetration of the product and services. Loyalty in brands can be achieved by maintaining quality and improving communication and marketing strategy. The marketing strategy of the company must improve brand awareness through advertising and social media. Social media platforms offer added value to the marketing campaign by encouraging feedback collection and participation of the consumer in product development. The success of Starbucks in Kava Island will depend on the ability to handle issues of human resource, product and service quality. Service and product quality can be addressed by the production process as such and the production process must accept the c hanges in technology and continuously improvement. In response to competition, Starbucks must work on cost cutting measures in order to reduce product price to increase product competitiveness. In reducing production cost, the restaurant will increase the penetration of its product in the market. ... Currently, social media usage must be employed to meet the younger generation. Marketing of products using online tools has increased sales volume because the clients employ online purchase of items (Beverly & Thomson, 2011). Apart from employing the online tools, social media have a massive impact on the success of the country both in business and politics. The Arab revolution is a product of social media usage in the airing of the grievances of the citizens. Facebook is the leading social media platform with massive subscribers and increased success in terms of usage. Facebook as a social media tool enjoys massive support from the youths who have employed it in communication and information transfer. Companies use social media marketing strategy to improve brand image and resonance (Beverly & Thomson, 2011, p. 123). Marketing involves the employment of all the necessary platforms of promotion and advertising with the SNSs offering a better platform for communication. Social media p latforms offer the opportunity for collection of feedback. Traditionally, feedback collection of products released in the market was hard to obtain owing to the nature of information sharing systems. The company must develop a social communication network between consumers to market and develop new ideas and services. The success of the company in communication with consumers helps to develop loyalty. Ethical implication of the proposed models actions Stakeholder involvement in the actions to be undertaken by the company will be based on the financial implication of the approach. Stakeholders worry about wealth creation and losses which may be passed over to them. Ethical issues involving stakeholders may not be resolved easily because they are not involved in business operations.

What is the role of Social Media in fashion today Term Paper

What is the role of Social Media in fashion today - Term Paper Example For many people, dress code is an expression of identity, personality, choice and faith. It can also profoundly affect an individual spiritual self and help out someone connect to the inward self hence realizing self-identity. Marco Pallis, the author on fashion, describes the importance and meaningfulness between dress and self identity, identity and social status. Additionally he explores how clothing rates among the most significant but least evaluated sites of colonization. He is mostly interested examining clothing as a constituent of self identity, social status and spirituality identity. He writes that ‘of the numerous issues an individual practice in the quest of earthly vocations, there are none, conceivably, that are so intimately attached with the whole personality as the dress ones wears (Pallis, 2005). The foremost issue that Pallis observes is how clothing can significantly transforms an individual appearance and even the facial looks. It is everyone effort to look appealing in front of the peers, colleagues or even in the eyes of the society on any occasion be it a business or just a mere visit. What an individual look has a great impact on how the rest and the society in general perceive that person. The image impacts on well-being of a person as perceived by others. In extreme cases, dress code can lead to a lowered self-esteem vis-Ã  -vis. It is, therefore, of at most importance if one looks appealing. There are many factors that can be used to explain the reason behind the fashions. Nonetheless, we cannot point to any individual factor as the reason why fashion exists amidst us. In one particular case, advance in social technology makes the information to travel fast than it was back then in the earlier days (Yerima, 2004). There is profound exchange of ideas, cultures, and fashions change within short period of time. A trending fashion will be all over the globe courtesy to

John Stuart Mill Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

John Stuart Mill - Essay Example John Stuart Mill was educated by his father, James Mill, who was cold and rigid. From then Mill understood the undergrounds of liberty and saw the mistakes from his father's rigid system of education: "Mill recognized , in later life, that his father's system had the fault of appealing to the intellect only and that the culture of his practical and emotional life had been neglected".(John Stuart Mill, Life and writings) John Stuart Mill, in his essay "On liberty", mentioned liberty and the relationships between freedom and state. The goal of state is to build a social system that respects and defends human rights and liberties. State can interfere against any individual, if he harms the other one's interests.1 This is the only case when Mill accepts the intervention of the state. There are cases when state rejects the individual's opinion .But that does not mean the point of view is wrong or false. Neither the belief of state, nor the individual' s opinion are totally false, they might contain a certain truth, so they must not be rejected. If this happens, the decision of the state becomes preconception and effects the man's liberty. Mill saw human being as an individual free to think, to speak , to feel. These rights are unquestionable on all the subjects: "()his independence is, of right, absolute. Over himself, over his own body and mind, the individual is sovereign" (qtd. John Stuart Mill' Essay on liberty, p.13) In thi In this relation, man-state, the latter can impose unlimited control, thing that cannot be acceptable. For Mill, education is primordial and it makes the differences between people , so the freedom of speech , of thinking is the most important. Mill speaks about the tyranny of the majority when the state wants to have the unlimited control, to entice the majority: ()There is a limit to the legitimate interference of collective opinion withindividual independence , and to find that limit, and maintain it againstencroachment, is as indispensable to a good condition of human affairs asprotection against political despotism.(qtd. John Stuart Mill's Essay on liberty) The tyranny of the majority often appears in bureaucratic countries. In the case of democratic countries the things go not so bad, because many individuals know and understand the importance of the liberty in all its aspects. Also, in the case of democratic countries and of developed ones, educated people are more and cannot be ruled by a man or a group. So, the danger of tyranny of majority is less. Liberty of speech , sustained by Mill, is indeed a very important right. In some periods the human being was restrained by people who wanted to had the supreme control(a kind of tyranny of the society). For example, the slavery, in the South of America, reserved man from various freedoms: the physical one, the conscience liberty, and maybe the most important one, the freedom of speech. The slaves were revolted mainly because they were treated like animals, they hadn't the right to write, to read or to express their feelings and desires. We can extend here, seeing in these liberties the differences

Rock and Roll Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Rock and Roll - Essay Example As the decade reached its end, the Rock and Roll had become a phenomenon that helped delineate the differences between the children and the adults. Rock and Roll originated in African American Blues and Gospel. Suburban teens were attracted to the sounds of Rhythm and Blues with the migration of the African Americans to the northern cities in large numbers. However, racism and segregation deterred many great artists of the genre from getting much exposure or attention. Alan Freed, the Disc jockey started a show of rhythm-and-blues played on the Cleveland radio station. The number of people liking the show grew in no time, thus causing Freed to coin the â€Å"rock and roll† term (Halper, 2001, p. 169). White artists first tried to cover the R&B songs but that led to weaker renditions which were not comparable to the originals in any way. This caused the record producers to start searching for a white artist for capturing the African American sound. â€Å"In 1955 â€Å"Rock around the Clock† was rock and roll: the first number 1 hit that was neither pop nor a white cover of a rhythm-and-blues song† (Campbell and Brody, 2007, p. 105). A Memphis record producer, Sam Phillips, identified the answer in Elvis Presley who took an old style and with his pouty lips, deep Southern sound, and gyrating hips, made it his own. The sound extended far and wide from Memphis, causing a drastic increase in the demand for Elvis Presley. Elvis Presley gained immense popularity in the entertainment business in a span of time as short as two years. â€Å"With his totally uninhibited stage manner, teen-tough dress, greased hair in a pompadour, and energetic singing style, Elvis projected a rebellious attitude that many teens found overwhelmingly attractive† (Campbell and Brody, 2007, p. 105). After the opening up of the door to the acceptance of rock and roll, many performers of the African American origin including Fats Domino, Chuck

An analysis for Lewis'relection following the death of his wife Assignment

An analysis for Lewis'relection following the death of his wife - Assignment Example Events involving loss or separation may occur throughout our lives (Lendrum & Syme 2004) but death is a particular form of loss that is very different from the loss of innocence or control, such as in sexual abuse or rape; or loss of status and income such as in retrenchment or unemployment. It is also vastly different from the loss of dreams or ambition such as in the birth of a disabled child. Death is not only devastating, it is final, (Lendrum & Syme 2004) and any counselling that occurs must take into consideration that bereaved persons understand this in different ways. Different individuals have varying concepts on what death brings, not only to them as the bereaved, but to the person who has died (Walton 1996). Not everyone believes in the hereafter, and that souls are reunited after death. Not all believers share the same concepts about death and resurrection (Duffey 2007). There are many variations on both philosophies. C S Lewis is well known for his Christian outlook, with an understanding that eternal life lies ahead for all souls, but a variety of these concepts exist in the community (Blank 2009). In addition, the shock of bereavement can give any person a new insight into their long-held beliefs. So allowances must be made; and jumping to conclusions, or making presumptions, must be avoided if possible (Kubler-Ross & Kessler 2007) . Just as C S Lewis had to redress his faith when his beloved wife died (Lewis 2001), many of those recently bereaved experience a shift in attitude - no matter how long they were held - that comes through shock and disbelief. Initial distress can often register as physical pain (Malkinson 2007). Lewis suffered from osteoporosis, so he was no stranger to pain, but the loss of ‘H’ struck him like an ache from which there was no relief (Lewis 2001). Reaction to the death of someone

Compare and contrast two views of how social order Essay Example for Free

Compare and contrast two views of how social order Essay â€Å"Whoever controls the media controls the mind† (Jim Morrison 1943-1971).excellent quote i had forgotten that one To establish a view on how social order is produced, in this essay the main focus will be on two researcher’s arguments both on social disorder specifically in regard to the influence of the mass media. Sociologist Stanley Cohen (1973) suggests that the media depiction of antisocial behaviour helps to construct what he labels ‘folk devils’. Whilst social scientists Stuart Hall et al (1978) argued that the mediation of disorderly behaviour led to the belief that society was in a ‘crisis’. By using my own examples and illustrations I will compare and contrast these two theories and furthermore for differentiation include a more present-day theory on social disorder through Huesmann et al 2003. Thereby through an examination of mediation (media spin) on disorderly behaviour attempt to define how one part of social order is produced in public spaces. Good clear introduction Sociologist Stanley Cohen’s theory on ‘folk devils’ which he first observed during the 1960’s media portrayal of Mods and Rockers (Making Social lives ,p378) gives an interesting oblique view on how social order is maintained, as according to is theory certain members of the public are classified as outsiders and treat like scapegoats. describe the theory a little bit here The evidence for this can be found as far back as ancient Greece Aristotle’s ‘unruly youths’ (Brake, 1980, p.1) Along with â€Å"fears of skilled pickpockets progressing to become burglars in the sixteenth century† (Shore, 2000, p. 21) and as near to our times is the example of Gypsy travellers who are and have been given the dubious pleasure of being one of the â€Å"carriers† of social evil and disorder of our days. Good use of examples This Sun headline (March 2005) on the right is just one of the many stereotypical images of gy psies, blown out of all proportion by mass media mediation and an example of that which is coined by Cohen as generating moral panic that is irrational and creates a situation â€Å"where people are both terrified and outraged† (Cohen, Making Social lives,p378). This use of inflammatory rhetoric with regards to gypsies is still being currently employed today as a Sun reporter reports he â€Å"found a community  brimming with fear and anger and villagers hell-bent on getting rid of them (Sun May 2011). These headlines from the mass media (public space) with regard to gypsies whom historically have many times been the focal point of European society’s ills and represented as’ folk devils’ very good The media campaigns of hostility against these ‘folk devils’ have not only produced moral panic â€Å"a pattern of behaviour, group of people or a condition becomes defined as a threat to society, its values and its interests† (Making Social lives, p371). This on-going mass media campaign against gypsies resulted in change the nations politics and laws to re-address social order. Such, as under sections 77-80 of the 1994 Act, [local authorities may direct persons who are unlawfully residing in vehicles on land in their own area to leave.] This an attempt to renew social order with regards to gypsies and thus allaying public fear.very good The media also played a significant role in sociologists Stuart Hall’s and co-authors (Policing the Crisis (1978) theory. Hall believed that the issue of crime was instrumental in controlling society and that the media constructions â€Å"contributed to a widespread belief that there was a crisis in society† (Making (Social lives, p378). As an illustration of some of the biased press coverage of street crime is a picture portrayed by this Sun image (Dec 2010) Hall surmises that this is how the media wishes to portray these issues to the public, as a rise in crime and disorder which can and should be treat by the government with greater policing measures and laws, which Hall terms the beginning of a â€Å"Law and Order Society† (Social lives, p378). He goes on to infer that media spin is used to distort and divert public attention from the clear problems of social injustice and inequality and that this aids government on social order policies. Evidence for this Law and Order society can be found with the introduction of the SUS (Stop and Search) powers that were used at their height when 1000 youths were stopped and searched in 5 days in what the police called Operation Swamp(bbc. Home, 25th Nov. 1981).well researched This resulted in the escalation of confrontation between the community and the police due to the locals perceiving an inequality and persecution of young blacks and this sparked off the Brixton race riots (1981). The outcome culminated in the renewal of social order with the abolition of the SUS law (1981). However they returned in another form due to 9/11 and 7/7 attacks to combat terrorism in 2007. To  compare and contrast Cohen and Halls views on mass media mediation and how the social order is maintained thro ugh public spaces it will be shown by examining that they have differences and similarities. Where both Cohen and Hall agree with regard to their theories on the issue of mediation (public spaces) is that they both believe that the focus of the mass media places spin on how social and criminal deviants (muggers) are portrayed. Also they both rely on labels to support their social disorder theories i.e. folk devil and muggers and furthermore characterising them as stereotypes. Moreover they continue to agree that the media exaggerates and amplifies and create’ scapegoats’ whose behaviours good example of compare and contrast are demonised with resulting effect on social order of creating ‘moral panic’ on the one hand and a sense of ‘crisis in society’ on the other. Where they greatly disagree is on the root causes of moral panics and social crisis in that Cohen with very little supporting evidence, believed cultural anxiety was to blame (Making Social Lives, Table 1, p383,). Whilst Hall thought that the blame led elsewhere with his inference to social inequality and racism and that the media served the state in diverting attention away from these genuine social problems (ibid).good In contrast to both Cohen and Halls views on the mediation of social disorder and the foundation of their theories on moral panic and society in crisis there is a view that has an alternative reason as to why and how the media can play a significant role in shaping social order in public spaces. This alternative view comes from the analysis of a longitudinal study (Making Social Lives, p381) by Huesmann et al on media effects, and in particularly how Huesmann and his team found a correlation between 557 children and the watching of violence on TV and a subsequent increase in propensity for aggressive behaviour in 398 of these same studied people. Therefore Huesmann et al. (2003) reached the conclusion on disorderly behaviour that there is a direct effect of media portrayal of violence. From this you can argue that in Huesmann’s view, media and mediation through public space in this case TV. can have a major negative role in the shaping of social order in society, by desensitising and normalising disorderly behaviour. Although there is no real causation evidence for these claims in Huesmann’s study and that the conclusion drawn on the media impact of television violence a chimera of other social factors very good expand on this a little. Thereby through  the examination of Cohen/Halls theories on mediation (media spin) on disorderly behaviour the following can be gleaned with regard to how one part of social order is produced in public spaces. Established norms of behaviour are created and exist in society supported by mass media and this sometimes leads to an increase in social pressure which is built up with a resulting increase in policing and law legislation (SUS laws). These societal norms are reinforced by media scapegoating of social and criminal deviants, Cohen’s ‘folk devils’ and Halls ‘muggers’. Although there are others (Huesmann et al) who believe that the shaping of social order in society is more directly influenced by TV violence alone. The methodology utilised in this essay was to shed light on the making of social order in public spaces through looking at two main theories on disorderly behaviour. And it has highlighted in my view that quite possibly genuine social problems and solutions are obscured by mediation resulting in legislation that deals with only the symptoms not the causes â€Å"The medias the most powerful entity on earth. They have the power to make the innocent guilty and to make the guilty innocent, and thats power, because they control the minds of the masses† (Malcolm X (1925-1965). Bibliography Cohen, S. (1973) Folk Devils and Moral Panics, London, Paladin. Hall, S., Critcher, C., Jefferson, T., Clarke, J. and Roberts, B. (1978) Policing the Crisis: Mugging, the State, and Law and Order, London and Basingstoke, Macmillan. Huesmann, R., Moise-Titus, J., Pdolski, C-L. And Eron, L. (2003) ‘Longitudinal relations between children’s exposure to TV violence and their aggressive and violent behaviour in young adulthood: 1977–1992’, Developmental Psychology, vol. 39, no. 2, pp. 201–23. Google Image, News.bbc.co.uk, accessed 24th /26th May 2011 Google Image, Enemiesofreason.co.uk accessed 25th May 2011 Jim Morrison (1943 – July 3, 1971) brainyquote.com accessed 20th may 2011 Malcolm X (1925-1965) thinkexist.com accessed 20th may 2011 Shore, H. (2000) ‘The idea of juvenile crime in 19th-century England’, History Today, vol. 50, no.6,pp. 21–7;

Water Level Control System Of The Tank Engineering Essay

Water Level Control System Of The Tank Engineering Essay The report provides an interim account of water level control system of a tank. The step-test experimental results for both (old and new) tanks and the method of calculating the water flow rate into the tank has been discussed. In addition, the techniques to work out the pump horsepower, motor power and the pump efficiency had been covered in this report. Future work on the laboratory experiment on proportional gain (P) and proportional plus integral gain (PI) testing and its relevance to industrial process and the approach to accomplish the set objectives of the project were discussed. CONTENT SUMMARY i CONTENT ii LIST OF FIGURES iii LIST OF TABLES iv AIM 4 OBJECTIVE 5 1.1 EXPERIMENT COMPONENTS 5 1.1.1 AMPLIFIER 5 1.1.2 SENSOR 6 1.1.5 VANE PUMP 9 1.1.5.1 PUMP TEST 10 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 12 3. CONTROLLER 12 3.1 P ONLY 13 3.2 P+I CONTROLLER 14 3.3 PID CONTROLLER 15 4. METHODOLOGY 15 4.2 P ONLY EXPERIMENT 16 4.3 P+I EXPERIMENT 17 5. RESULTS DISCUSSION ANALYSIS 18 5.1 SYSTEM TRANSFER FUNCTION 18 5.2 SYSTEM MODELLING 19 5.3 SYSTEM PERFERMANCE 19 5.4. RESULT DISCUSSION 20 21 6. CONCLUSION 21 7. REFERENCES 22 8. APPENDIX 23 LIST OF FIGURES Graph 1: Outcome of Pump Testing Graph 11 LIST OF TABLES NOMENCLATURE P Proportional PI Proportional Integral PD Positive displacement PID Proportional-Integral-Derivative PWM Pulse width modulation Qo Output Qi Input INTRODUCTION In years back level control has been a major issue in the industrial processes. The controlling of liquid level is essential in most industrial processes such as: food processing, nuclear power plants, water purification systems, industrial chemical processing, boilers etc. Although, most industrial problems such as: controlling the speed of motor, or fluid level in a tank, or temperature of the furnace are due to the installation of control process when the control concepts had not been properly understood (Dutton et al., 1997). However, the ingenuity of control engineer can often overcome these challenges by producing a well-behaved piece of equipment. Mostly, proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controllers are used for liquid level control in most applications and can be applied to many industrial processes and mechanical systems. PID controllers proven to be a perfect controller for simple and linear processes, but when it comes to controlling of non-linear and multivariable processes, the controller parameters have to be continuously adjusted (Bhuvaneswari et al., 2008). In process control systems, nonlinearity is the rule rather than the exception. Most control loops such as pressure, temperature, composition, etc., are significantly nonlinear. This may be because of nonlinearity due to control valves, or on account of variations in process gain, time constant, and dead time, as discussed in (McMillan et al, 1994). Therefore, the study of control system has contributed to huge impact positively to our modern day development. A plant can be controlled manually or automatically and the control system consists of a plant with its actuators, sensors and a controller. Manual controlling process of a plant cannot be as accurately enough compared to automatic control. An automatic controller is made up of device, electronic circuit, computer, or mechanical linkage etc. The interface between the plant and the controller requires actuators (control elements) to provide control action. In instrumentation, detectors and sensors (measurement elements) are needed to provide information about the plant status to the controller (Golten and Verwer, 1991). However, the most important characteristic of a plant is its stability, which indicates that a system can be control smoothly without undue oscillation or overcorrection. The behaviour and performance of a control system depends on the interaction of the entire element. The difference between the set-point and the actual value of the variable is called error. Another important characteristic of a control system is how quickly it can respond to an error and correct it. The smaller the error, the better it would be for the control system. The basic types of process control are open loop and closed loop system. + The open loop system has no feedback because it has no sensor to sense the fluid level in the tank. While the closed loop system is characterised by a sensor and a feedback signal which carries information from the measurement device to the comparator. Typical actuators used in liquid level control systems include pumps, motorised valve, on-off valves, etc. In addition, level sensors such as displacement float, capacitance probe, pressure sensor (Bateson, 1999), etc., provide liquid level measurement for the purpose of feedback control. In a closed loop feedback control system, the forward path transfer function is G(s) representing the process or plant being controlled together with any controller dynamics. The feedback path transfer function, H(s), represents the measurement system or transducer which provides the feedback signal (Golten and Verwer, 1991). The overall transfer function relating the controlled variable Qo to the desired value or reference, Qi is Qi Qo Figure 1: Closed loop block diagram Hence, the procedure of deriving the equation above can be found in the appendix page. In addition, the prime objective of feedback control systems is to minimise the differences between the output and the reference input since this represents the error. The control system should be quick as possible in reducing this error to zero (or to some reasonable low value) when there is either a disturbance or change in reference value (Golten and Verwer, 1991). Feedback has similar advantages when applied to automatic control system, it has the ability of controlling a system that deals with unexpected disturbances that might occur within the system and adapt to changes in the plant. Therefore, with the advancement of electronics and its applications, the understanding of close loop control system increased rapidly, since feedback amplifier is essential (Healey, 1975). A simple control system is used to maintain a constant water level in a tank, example of such is toilet systems in various homes. The swinging arm attached to the input valve of the WC water tank allows water to flow into the tank until the float rises to a point that closes the valve. When the water level is low in the tank, the swinging arm moves downwards which allows more water to flow into the tank. This continues until the swinging arm returns to its initial state. This is a simple and effective level control system for water tank. Another level of control system is a steam boiler where the level of the water in the boiler must be maintained between certain limits; otherwise, it may lead to serious damage to the boiler and building as well as cause hazard to the building occupants (Miller et al, 2004). Water gages serves as a means of measurement level in the boiler. In an engineering context, the addition of control systems must be justified in terms of their profitability, or environment safety. A control system must be effective and efficient, and remain so throughout the life of the plant (Dutton et al., 1997). The performance of a system is often expressed in terms of their parameters such as: speed of response, stability and steady-state error. A good speed of response may often be achieved at the expense of steady state error and stability (Premier, 2008)  [1]  . Stability is one of the most important characteristics in any system. For a system to be stable, the system components must be appropriatel y sized for the application and the system must be correctly adjusted (tuned). The objectives of this project is to investigate the control of water level in non-linear water tank which is fed by a centrifugal pump and discharges to a sump tank through a valve. The tank is a V shaped tank which has a straight wall. The system inflow would be adjusted alongside with the control signal to the outlet valve and the outlet pump during the simulation. Furthermore, the project task includes designing a proportional (P) only and proportional + integral (PI) controller for a specific operating point and implementing it as an analogue s-domain system. The objectives would be accomplished by examining the dynamics of the water tank, modelling it from first principles and by applying step tests to identify the system model at various operating points. The diagram below shows the equipment used to carry out the experiment. Figure 2: Water tank level control system Figure 4: Block diagram of V Shaped Tank system AIM To characterise a new V tank Conduct identification and control experimentation Comparing it with an existing replicate system OBJECTIVE Relating level control to industrial applications. Understanding the dynamics of water tank, modelling it from first principle Application of step-test to identify the system model at various operating points. Designing a proportional + integral controller for specific operating point. 1.1 EXPERIMENT COMPONENTS In order to perform the laboratory experiment on process plant (V-tank), the experimental components used are: amplifier, sensor transducer, water tank, valve, and pump which are discussed below. 1.1.1 AMPLIFIER The amplifier is a very important part of any control system. Basically, it is used to deliver an output signal which is larger, in a prescribed way, than the input signal. A good designed amplifier mostly requires that the input impedance should be large so that the source is not loaded, and the output impedance should be small so that the power element can be easily driven (Anand Zmood, 1995)  [2]  . An amplifier could be referred to as the signal conditioner use in this experiment. An am In pulse width modulation (PWM) the amplitude and repetition rate remain constant, and the width of the pulse is varied according to the modulation signal amplitude (Parr, 1996)  [3]   Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) signals are increasingly being used to drive continuous actuators such as d.c. motor, hydraulic servos and a.c. motor. If the switching frequency of the PWM amplifier is sufficiently high in relation to the actuator time constants, then the signals will be average around the value (Olsson Piani, 1992)  [4]  . The motor is driven by a Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) power amplifier, which supplies power to the motor proportional to a voltage signal from the controller. Pulses are produces at regular intervals, the duration or width of the pulse being proportional to the size of the voltage at each of the times concerned (Bolton, 1991)  [5]  . The reason why pulse width modulation is used is that conventional power amplifiers would simply burn at high power levels. The advantage of switching is that the solid-state devices are not continuously loaded with high power and therefore their power dissipation is low. This fact makes PWM amplifier very efficient. In PWM amplifier, the switching can be directly controlled from the digital output ports of a computer. 1.1.2 SENSOR In virtually every engineering application, there is the need to measure some physical quantities, such as displacements, speeds, forces, pressures, temperatures, stresses, flows and so on. These measurements are performed using this physical device called sensors, which are capable of converting a physical quantity to a more readily manipulated electrical quantity (Onwubolu, 2005). A sensor could be referred to as transducer. Although, there are different kinds of liquid level transducers which are used in variety of control applications with different function such as: float-type liquid level transducers, hydrostatic pressure liquid level transducers, capacitance probes, and so on. But with respect to this project, the pressure transducer will be the point of focus. The pressure transducer is used to measure the height (or head) level in the tank For a sensor to function effectively there is a need for signal conditioner and a display system. This signal conditional obtains signal from the sensor and manipulates it into a condition which are suitable either for display, or control system usefulness. Hence, a display system shows the output readings from the signal conditional (Bolton, 1999)  [6]  . Since the dynamic and static characteristics of the sensor or measuring element affect the indication of the actual value of the output variable, then the sensor plays an important role in determining the overall performance of the control system. The sensor usually determines the transfer function in the feedback path. If the time constants of a sensor are negligibly small compared with other time constants of the control system, the transfer function of the sensor simply becomes constant (Ogata, K., 1997). In selecting a good transducer with respect to its performance and system measurement, certain criteria had to be fulfilled. The accuracy of the transducer to which it has been calibrated, its response to error within the system, its stability i.e. the ability of the transducer to give the same output reading when used to measure a constant input over a period of time, etc (Bolton, 2008)  [7]  . 1.1.3 WATER TANK Water tank is a The tank characteristics are non linear depending on the operating point and are such that tank level surface is a function of the level. Figure 5: Tank fluid level system The objective of the controller in the level control process is to maintain a level set point at a given value and be able to accept new set point values dynamically and this level control system must be controlled by the proper controller. In considering the top section of the tank as shown in fig. 5 above, the flow-rate can be calculated using Bernoullis equation. From Bernoullis law the flow through a valve q (m3s-1) is related to the pressure head across the valve h (m) by the following equation, in which g is the acceleration due to gravity, Cd is the coefficient of discharge (m2) (Dutton et al., 1997). Modelling the Tank The tank can be modelled from first principles with the provision of certain assumptions. For the sake of simplicity, it is possible to consider the top section of the tank with parallel sides and then extend this model to deal with the whole tank. The prismatic section of the tank can be considered to be a simple rectangular tank with an inflow Q and an outflow, QL as in Figure 2. By considering conservation of matter, we can say that the flow into the tank must be equal to the flow out plus the flow converted into a change in level. but if then 1.1.4 VALVE Control valves are commonly encountered elements in process plant and the equation that describes their flow behaviour are nonlinear. Other nonlinear effects may exist because of the valve characteristic and the equipment surrounding the value. Control valves are used to regulate the flow rate of fluid in a system. The control of flow rate can be achieved by varying the size of the passage through which the fluid flows (Stenerson, 2004)  [8]  . The control valve modulates the flow of a fluid by introducing a variable area aperture into the pipeline. The volumetric flow rate, Q, of a particular liquid through a valve is proportional to the pressure drop across it, à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  P. Thus, let kv be the valve coefficient which is the function of the valve opening or lift, h. in order to avoid dimensionality, the lift, h is defined as a fractional lift, i.e. when h is 1 the control valve is fully open, and when the h is 0 the value is shut. 1.1.5 VANE PUMP In selecting a pump for a specific task, there are certain factors that needs to be considered such as: the height at which the pump will be moving the liquid to, the speed that is required, and the pressure flow at the pumps outlet. A pump is a mechanical device that changes mechanical power into fluid power. Positive displacement (PD) pumps perform work by expanding and then compressing a cavity, space, or moveable boundary within the pump. In most cases, these pumps actually captured the liquid and transport it through the pump to the discharge nozzle (Bachus Custodio, 2003)  [9]  . However, the flow through PD pump is mostly a function of the speed of the driver or motor. A D.C motor drives the pump at a constant speed in most cases so that the delivery would be constant, i.e. the flow Q is normally constant (Healey, 1975). The pressure or head that a PD pump can generate is mostly a function of the thickness of the casing and strength of the associated accompanying parts (seals, hoses gaskets). In addition, a PD pump has been designed to have some strict tolerance parts. This strict tolerance controls the flow, and pressure that these pumps can generate. The ability to pressurize the fluid to higher pressures will depend on the tolerance of the components within the pump. Hence, the closer the pumps tolerance, the higher the capabilities would be (Brumbach Clade, 2003).  [10]  Furthermore, there are three types of positive displacement pumps in use nowadays which are: vane pump, gear pump and the piston pump. These kinds of pump had different similarities depending on their performance but based on this task it would be concentrated on vane pump. Vane pump are used in hydraulic systems. When the rotor rotates the pumps vanes in a counter clockwise direction which caused the vanes to slide in and out of their slots within the pump housing, a large amount of fluid would be carried from the inlet to the outlet (Onwubolu, 2005)  [11]  . This results from the eccentricity of the centre of the rotor with respect to that of the housing. Figure 3: Vane Pump 1.1.5.1 PUMP TEST In order to examine the pumps accuracy, a test was carried out on the pump. The pump was used to move water from one container to the other within a time limit. Using the laboratory scale machine, the empty container was measured to weighs 0.585Kg. However, the pump was tested at different voltage supplied to the pump from 1v 10v at every one minute and then measured the filled container to know the actual weight. The reading was measured in kilogram (kg) which was converted to litres per minute. The conversion was 1kg to 1litre at a constant time. The outcome of the pump testing experiment could be seen in the graph below. Graph 1: Outcome of Pump Testing Graph In addition, the pump testing results obtained from the graph above shows that the pump was not functioning perfectly. The inaccuracy of the pumps efficiency is as a result of imbalance modified vanes inside the pump. The actual dimension of the vane inside the pump was 8mm inner diameter, 52mm outside diameter and 22mm thickness. The out diameter of the vane was cut-down or modified to roughly about 40mm for the vane to rotate easily within the casing. Hence, the graphs shape should be linear and not the linear curve shape in graph 1. From this experiment, it was observed that at any increase in voltage supplied to the pump; there will be large amount of pressure increase from the flow outlet and vice versa. Pump Figure 4: Modified Vane Size Figure 5: Actual Vane Size 2. LITERATURE REVIEW Literature review 3. CONTROLLER A controller is a device which monitors and influences the operational condition of a given dynamical system. In closed loop control system, a controller is used to compare the output of a system with the required condition and convert the error into a control action designed to reduce error. The error might be as a result of some changes in the conditions being controlled or because of changes in the set value. Most industrial controllers use electricity or pressurized fluid such as oil or air as power sources. Controllers may also be classified according to the kind of power employed in their operation, such as pneumatic controllers, hydraulic controllers, or electronic controllers. For this kind of controllers to be used for a particular task, it must be based on the nature of the plant and the operating conditions (Ogata, K., 1997)  [12]  . 3.1 P ONLY With proportional control the change in the controller output from the set point value is proportional to the error (Bolton, 1991)  [13]  . This means that the correction of the control element such as valve will receive signal which depends on the size of the correction required. Although, a system with a proportional control may have a steady state offset (or drop) in response to a constant reference input and may not be entirely capable of rejecting a constant disturbance (Mutambara, 1999). For higher order systems, large values of the proportional feedback gain will typically lead to instability. For most systems there is an upper limit on the proportional feedback gain in order to achieve a well damped stable response, and this limit may still have an unacceptable steady state error. Therefore, there is a limit on how much the errors can be reduced by using proportional feedback only. One of the ways to improve the steady state accuracy of the control system is to introduce integral control. Set point Error Process variable Amplifier Actuator signal Plant 3.2 P+I CONTROLLER The primary reason for integral control is to reduce or eliminate constant steady state errors within the plant or system. Several limitations of proportional control are resolved by integral control. The steady state response to this class of load disturbance is completely eliminated. Thus, as long as the system remains stable, the system output equals the desired output regardless of the value of KP and its dynamic response (Mutambara, 1999)  [14]  . If the designer wishes to increase the dynamic speed of response with large integral gain, then the response of the system becomes very oscillatory. Hence, in order to avoid this oscillatory behaviour of the system then both proportional and integral control should be used at the same time. Set point Error Process variable Amplifier Actuator signal 3.3 PID CONTROLLER Most industrial processes are controlled using proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controllers. The popularity of PID controllers can be attributed to their good performance in wide range of operating conditions and partly to their functional simplicity, which make it easy to operate (Dorf and Bishop, 2005)  [15]  . PID controllers are so effective that its controlling ability are standard in processing industries such as petroleum, refining, etc. In order to design a particular control loop system, the constants value of KP, KI and KD had to be adjusted to an acceptable performance. Increasing KP and KI tends to reduce system errors but may not be capable of also producing adequate stability, while increasing KD tends to improve stability. The combination of the three control components in this system yields complete control over the system dynamics. The proportional-integral-derivation (PID) controller provides both an acceptable degree of error reduction and an acceptable stability and damping. 4. METHODOLOGY 4.1 STEP-TEST EXPERIMENT The first part of the laboratory experiment involves determining the theoretical model at various level (h) of the water tank which include the prismatic bottom of the tank, the V shaped section and the top parallel sides of the tank. The water level in the tank was measured by a pressure sensor which was calibrated in the instrumentation laboratory prior to the experiment which showed that the pressure transducer produced a voltage signal proportional to the head. To start this experiment, the centrifugal pump was switched on and the Lab View step input programme was opened. The centrifugal pump was used to fill the water tank from a rectangular sump tank and also ensuring that there was enough water in the sump tank to perform the experiment. Although, the control valve was ensured to be fully open so that there would be continuous flow of water from the sump tank into the main tank as a result of constant running of the pump. After warming up the pump for some time, the pump bias was then set on the Lab View program to 1.3 volts (constantly) were the water is just about to start dropping into the tank. Using one second sampling time, the step volt was increased repeatedly by an additional 0.1 volts each time the head (h) settles from 0v 0.1v, 0.1v 0.2v, and so on. As a result of increases in voltage, the water level would be increased as well in the tank. Once the water level reached the top of the tank, in order to prevent the water from overflowing the step volt was reduced back to zero volt (0v) which allows the water to be empty back into the sump tank from the main tank and data or result was collected from the PC. 4.2 P ONLY EXPERIMENT In order to perform the P only experiment, the proportional gain has to be calculated to get the accurate value that would be input into the system. The proportional gain value can then be input into the LabVIEW package to run the experiment. The set point can be changed form one point to another to see how the plant would responds to the sudden changes to increase in set point The second part of the experiment entailed the design of the P only controller and P + I controller. As regards to the P only controller, once the values of the steady state gain and time constant were found from the initial step input experiment, the next step was to design a P only controller which will give closed loop dynamics 1/3 that of the open loop plant, which was then used to calculate the values of Kp at known head (h). Having calculated the Kp values, the pump was then switched on and allowed to warm up, also the Lab View P only controller programme was initiated. With the pump warmed up the Kp value was then entered into the P only controller programme alongside the same value for the pump bias and the sample time used in the previous experiment, i.e. 1.28 volts and 1 seconds respectively. The P only controller programme was allowed to run and the results for the sensor output (volts), the error (e) and the control effort were recorded and retrieved. 4.3 P+I EXPERIMENT Finally to control the level of water in the tank and eliminate the steady state error the Proportional Integral Controller experiment was initiated, the hf (design level to which the tank is to be controlled) was defined and further derivation resulted in two unknowns, Kp and TI. The values for Kp and TI were then calculated for, then input into the Proportional Integral Controller program and allowed to run with a sample time of 1 seconds. The results for the sensor output (volts), the error (e) and the controller output were recorded and retrieved. 5. RESULTS DISCUSSION ANALYSIS 5.1 SYSTEM TRANSFER FUNCTION AMPLIFIER WATER TANK SENSOR CONTROL VALVE PUMP PROPORTIONAL ONLY PROPORTIONAL PLUS INTEGRAL 5.2 SYSTEM MODELLING 5.3 SYSTEM PERFERMANCE 5.4. RESULT DISCUSSION Graph 1: Step-test experiment of voltage against time. Graph 2: Step-test experiment of voltage against time 6. CONCLUSION FUTURE WORK Filter design discussion: noise reducer 7. REFERENCES Bateson, R.N., 1999. Introduction to control system technology. 6th ed. Upper Saddle River, London: Prentice-Hall. Bhuvaneswari, N.S. Uma, G. and Rangaswamy. T.R., 2008. Adaptive and optimal control of a non-linear process using intelligent controllers. Applied Soft Computing [e-journal] (9) pp.182-190. Available through: Science Direct database [Accessed 26 November 2010]. Dutton, K. Thompson, S. and Barraclough, B., 1997. The art of control engineering. Harlow; Reading, Mass.: Addison Wesley. Girdhar, P. and Moniz, O., 2005. Practical centrifugal pumps: design, operation and maintenance. Oxford: Newnes. Golten, J. and Verwer, A., 1991. Control system design and simulation. London: McGraw-Hill. Healey, M., 1975. Principles of automatic control. 3rd ed. London: English Universities Press. Miller, R. Miller, M.R. and Oravetz, J., 2004. Audel Questions and Answers for Plumbers Examinations. USA: Wiley Publishing. Shinners, S. M., 1998. Modern control system theory and design, 2nd ed. Canada: John Wiley Sons, Inc. Wahren, U., 1997. Practical introduction to pumping technology: a basic guide to pumps. Houston: Gulf Pub. Co.

Premarital Sex And Promiscuity Theories

Premarital Sex And Promiscuity Theories This essay will be discussing the topic of promiscuity and premarital sex from both Ellistons and Punzos theories. According to Punzo on Premarital sex, it is for two people to have engaged in a sexual contact/intercourse without having the full commitment but on the other hand, promiscuity according to Elliston it is to have sex with many different people without having any commitment. When comparing both, Punzo is seen as the conservative while Elliston is seen as supporting casual sex. Punzos theory is when two people are together having sex they both must be engaged in a deep commitment between the two people. On the other hand, Elliston is arguing that sexual intercourse doesnt require any thoughts or strong consideration with any commitments since it is not that big of a deal. According to Elliston promiscuity is seen as free love, where you can just meet someone and starting to fall in love with them. With this definition, it might be easier for some to understand it, as having freedom. It can also be recognized as having recreational sex, having sex just for fun. When the word fun comes with anything, it will be seen as attractive and easy going. Elliston has created a definition himself that better defined promiscuity. Promiscuity is defined as sex with a series of other adults not directly related through marriage and with no commitments; no promises of affection, sexual exclusivity in future (Elliston 144). Elliston also stated that for those who just want to get others in bed to have sex by lying, exploiting, and deceiving or something close to it are wrong. It is seen as wrong because it breaches the ethical principles that we all learned as a child, which is not to lie. When someone is lying about everything just because they are trying to get someone in bed to have sex with them, it is seen as very unethical. Promiscuity is seen as to the advantage of males and to the disadvantage of females because it is true that males do not have anything to lose while females will lose their virginity and at times their love. It has become exploitive; woman would get social blame but man would get sexual satisfaction. Promiscuity is not actually wrong but it is the double standard that is in places where woman is at a disadvantage in comparison to man. Promiscuity can not be defined as wrong all the time; the charges that it necessarily violates generally accepted a moral principle is false. (E lliston 146). Elliston is saying that the double standard that should be remove but not the promiscuity, since it is always seen as a disadvantage for woman. The female involved might not feel the same as to being cheated or being used for the man to have their sexual satisfaction but it might be the woman who is using the man to satisfy herself. Sex is just a body language in the form of body interaction between the two people that are willing to interact and it leads to pleasure. It also has a deep meaning behind it. According o Elliston, sex is more than thrusts and moans, caresses and sighsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦just as verbal language has a dimension of meaning beyond phonemes and morphemes, so body language has a significance beyond the intertwining of two bodiesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Promiscuity has instrumental value in that it can facilitate the mastery of one kind of body languageà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦sexual body language is learned through sexual interactionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦experiences enable an individual to develop a repertoire of gestures for communicating desire and affection and of decisive movements that clearly state intentions of love or amusement. People can be moved not only by the things we say but also by the things we do-with them, for them, or to themà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦desire and satisfaction can be communicated not only through verbal exchanges, but also through a lingering look and an appreciative caress. To a shattered ego a physical embrace may express far more reassurance than its verbal counterparts, and a kiss may convey desire more eloquently than pleas or poemsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦The observance of this etiquette is an acknowledgement of the selfhood of the other. The acquisition of it is one of the opportunities promiscuity provides(Elliston 149). Based on this quote, Elliston is saying sex is a part of body language and the more you practice it the better you will get. The skills that you get from promiscuity will wider range of people outside of marriage or committed-relationships. Usually a married couple would be seen as only one man is allow to have dinner with one woman, which is referring to only having sex with the partner and that is it, third party is not acceptable (traditionally). Elliston sees having sex with one person at first before you decide to love that person or not. Pretty much he i s saying having sex first will be a pre-stage of trying out whether the persons sexual skill or chemistry from sexual intercourse will help you decide to love this person or not. Therefore Elliston is arguing that promiscuity should be allow and should not be seen as wrong because it is something for the two to try out and see if the chemistry is there. In Punzos view, sex before marriage or even having sex with no commitment is seen as wrong. Punzo has answered the question of is having pre-martial sex without any commitment wrong, with using Wilsons theory of sexual intercourse to compare it with playing tennis and Chessers theory of two people going to see movies together. Both Wilson and Chesser see it normal and there is nothing morally wrong about having pre-marital sex. At the same time, Punzo has disagreed with both of them stating that going to the movies or playing tennis with many people are just some general activities which anyone can encounter, but it does not necessary have to be the one you would have sex with, or have any sexual interest with. In Punzos view, sexual intercourse must be between two committed people, so having sex without any sort of commitment is wrong. Punzo states that commitment is a must before sex, as one must agree to commit to a relationship before they can move on to a new level in their rela tionship, through having sex, the two gives themselves to each other in the way of trust, expressing ones mind, and feelings through the most intimate activity, sexual intercourse. Punzo see Ellistons argument between sex and dinning is a wrong example because dinning and sex are two different things, it is in an extreme that it has nothing to do with each other, dinning and sex has no connection at all. Dinning can be with any friends, or family members, and it does not involve any sexual contacts. Yes, dinning can be with your spouse, partner but it can also be with someone else. Both eating and sex do give people satisfaction, but they are totally different from each other. Food is a need for people to survive but people can live with out sex. Ellistons theory is to have sexual intercourse with as many people as you can before falling in love, but Punzos theory is to be in love or have the necessary commitment before having sexual intercourse. The moral perspectives of both are totally different from each other. This is why Punzo would not agree with Elliston and vice versa. Ellistons argument has a defect to it, it is having sex with a number of people does not only increase the skills of ones sexual ability, but it also limits the important value of having the most intimate relationship with the other through sexual intercourse. I believe we all know that having sex with the one we love is the most loving and special feeling of being complete as a whole. If one is engaged in a sexual activity with many other people and then stated that the one is now in love with their partner is not a rational theory, but it is also very confusing and unreasonable that promiscuity does not damage a committed relationship. Having sex without any commitment, and isolate oneself with uncommitted sex is a view that may not be true. They can have sex without any commitment but they might realize more about themselves. It doesnt mean they are isolating themselves just because they do not involve in a committed relationship. Punzos full commitment does not have a clear defi nition, does it mean to be in a legal marriage with legal documents, and so if the two are just common-law couple then does that mean they are not legal? Punzo should have clear that term and have a better explanation of it. With the mutual understanding and respects towards each other with pre-martial sex, it is not going to affect the two negatively. It would not be harm if pre-martial sex will lead the two into commitment and onto future commitment, it would become a good thing. If pre-martial sex is happening then protection is needed to prevent any unexpected or unwanted pregnancy. In conclusion, both Punzo and Elliston has their pros and cons. Premarital sex should follow Punzos theory of sex, and they must involve commitment, but not with full commitment. Punzo did not clarify what full commitment means, if it meant at the stage of being legally married, then those who are only engaged or soon to be marry couples should not be having any sexual interactions. Also promiscuity must be permitted only if no one is being hurt and lie to as a result of promiscuity. It is true that Ellistons argument of double standard needs to be remove because it is only seen as woman being the one that are at a disadvantage, but sometimes it is not the case, woman would be out to lie to man just to get money or any material that need from the man. Therefore double standard should be remove but not promiscuity. Also promiscuity is a good way to practice ones sexual skills and ability in the bed, it is true to the term practice makes prefect, it would suit this practice of promisc uity closely.